In 1946, the Fourth Republic replaced the collaborator regime which was installed by the Nazis after their invasion of France during World War II. The Fourth Republic was characterized by a strong parliament and a Prime minister chosen by the majority party. Charles de Gaulle, who led the Free French Resistance movement against the Nazis, was elected but refused to participate and resigned.

After World War II, France decolonized Indochina, Morocco, Tunisia, and the rest of West Africa. The Fourth Republic also allowed women's suffrage. Violent conflict arose in Algeria, with bombings, terrorism, and the death of nearly one million people. The Algerian government, which supported the French government, collapsed; and, as a result, the people called Charles De Gaulle to resolve the problem. De Gaulle refused to take power unless the government would allow a stronger Presidential position. The people of France conceded, and in 1958 the Fifth Republic was formed with a strong<o:p></o:p> authoritarian President. However, De Gaulle's solution to the problem was to simply free Algeria.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

In 1968, university students protest over their conditions, leading to massive strikes. As a result, De Gaulle resigned in 1969. From 1981 to 1995, Francois Mitterand served as President of France. He was a Socialist, and implemented numerous socialized programs. He instituted nationalized banks, insurance industries, and defense industries. Workers' wages increased during his tenure and working hours were reduced. However, when the French economy lagged, he abandoned socialism in 1984 and the French economy revived.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

In 1995, Jacques Chirac became President as a member of the conservative Gaullist party.<o:p></o:p>

Currently, the French president is Nicolas Sarkozy, in office since 2007.

F. M. (Tle ES 2)

<o:p></o:p>

 

In 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, after the death of Joseph Stalin. He reversed many of his predecessor's policies. As a matter of fact, his policy became known as the "destalinization" process. This period is known as "the thaw": the tensions between the USSR and the United States became more relaxed.

Khrushchev believed that the communist nations could live in peace with the democracies of the West and he intended to establish a peaceful coexistence. Moreover, he tried to modernize Russia and to give more freedom to its citizens. He eliminated show trials, replacing them with actual court systems, and he rid the USSR of purges. Khrushchev also allowed more freedom of speech and criticism of Stalin: at the XX Party Congress (in 1956), he announced that Stalin had made many mistakes during his reign.

Khrushchev tried to reform collectivized agriculture and to shake up the Communist Party, but the Party forced him out in 1964. His successor was Leonid Brezhnev (1964 - 1982).

The West regards Khrushchev as unpredictable, espacially because of his action during the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).

 

F. M. (Tle ES 2)

 

1951

Six countries (Belgium,Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) sign the Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).

1957

March, 25^th : Treaty of Rome

The six countries sign the treaties establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the Euratom, European Atomic Energy Community.

1960

The Stockholm Convention creates the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), with European countries in and out of EEC.

1965

A treaty is signed merging the three Communities (ECSC, EEC and Euratom) and creating a single Council and a single Commission.

1973

Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom join the European Communities (Norwegian people reject in a referendum).

1981

Greece joins the European Communities, bringing the number of members to 10.

1985

The Schengen Agreement is signed with the aim of abolishing checks at the borders between member countries of the European Communities. (carte 2008)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1986

Spain and Portugal join the European Communities

The Single European Act is signed in Luxembourg and The Hague : the first major revision of the Treaty of Rome that formally established the single European market and the European Political Cooperation.Leaders from business and politicals wanted to harmonize laws between countries and resolve policy disagreements.

1992

February, 7^th : Treaty of Maastricht:

The European council institute a Common Foreign and Security Policy , reinforce the Police and Judicial Cooperation in criminal matters, create an Economic and Monetary Union, with the euro.

1995

Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU, bringing its membership to 15.

1997

The Amsterdam Treaty is signed : reprising Schengen Agreements and reinforce the European Parliament powers.

2001

February, 26^th Signing of the Treaty of Nice: the European council adopt a new treaty reformed the institutional structure of the European Union to withstand eastward expansion . European Parliament, Council, and Commission president proclaim Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

 

2003

European Constitution plans.

2004

Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia join the European Union. (25 members)

2005

Voters in France reject the Constitution in a referendum, then followed by voters in the Netherlands.

2007

Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union. (27 members)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Marie B. 1S10

<o:p></o:p>

On this photo we can see a very young girl; she seems to be about eight years old, in a textil factory. The little girl is wearing scrubs, presumable factory’s uniform. She is barefooted whereas the floor is covered with scraps. She isn’t moving, she is standing<o:p></o:p>

 upright, sounding like she was frightened. Besides, she doesn’t seem happy since she is not smiling, we can even say that she is sad-looking, perhaps because she is alone, but probably because she has to work. This girl represents the child labour. The photo had been taken in 1908 but this phenomenon began long before and runs on nowadays.<o:p></o:p>

Child labour has increased a lot during the Industrial Revolution, in particular in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Great Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> where the Revolution has begun in 1780’s ies. Indeed children participated at economic activity: the age of beginning of working decreased and the apprenticeships were privileged. This labour force was numerous. The work hours were prolonged during this time, the working time was very long and children worked as much as their parents! Sometimes, they even slept on their workplaces! Moreover they began working very young, from the age of six or eight!<o:p></o:p>

In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Great Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Industrial Revolution’s cradle, this phenomenon went on about eighty years.<o:p></o:p>

The children’s working conditions were very bad: they had to do the hardest and the most tiresome jobs as in mines and factories. In mines, they worked in the dark, from dawn to evening. The job was hard: they carried coal on their back; they cleaned few accessible parts of machines…<o:p></o:p>

Lots of accidents or crumbling occurred in factories and mines and attracted people’s attention. After in 1833 the Factory Act limited the child labour, and little by little laws have come to an abolition with the compulsory schooling.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

 

<o:p> </o:p>Nowadays this phenomenon still exists in the occident but it is illegal and no usual.<o:p></o:p>

But it is very present in ecomically developing countries. We can quote examples of children who are soldiers in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Colombia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Afghanistan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Tchad … These children are forced to kill. They are enrolled very early because of poverty or civil wars, but kidnapping is important. There are case of prostitution and pornography as in <st1:city w:st="on">Manila</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Bombay</st1:city> or <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangkok</st1:place></st1:city> and in a lot of other countries. Children are kidnapped, sometimes they are less of 5 years old, and they have to prostitute in sexual tourism’s trade.<o:p></o:p>

Children are exploited as workers in factories too: we can talk about forced working and traffics: drug trafficking, arms dealing … <o:p></o:p>

Laws are established and signed, but lots of countries prefer ignore its. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

This phenomenon shocks me hugely. I think it is scandalous to exploit innocent people and harmless children. These jobs prevent children to have a future, to go to school, and sometimes even kill them! Like children who are soldiers, these “jobs” may be very dangerous!<o:p></o:p>

Children are often not paid or just a little and in a lot of cases they are forced to work!<o:p></o:p>

 Charlotte Ducomet 1ere S10